User Operations (UserOps) are the new primitive. The standard transaction model is a bottleneck for user experience, forcing dApps to manage gas, sign multiple approvals, and navigate fragmented liquidity. The ERC-4337 standard abstracts this complexity into a single, gas-abstracted intent.
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The Future of dApp Development is Building for User Operations
A technical argument for why developers must abandon the single-transaction paradigm and design for batched intent execution, powered by smart contract accounts and ERC-4337.
introduction
THE SHIFT
Introduction
The next wave of dApp adoption requires a fundamental shift from transaction-centric to user-centric development.
The future is intent-based architecture. Instead of executing a precise sequence of low-level calls, users declare a desired outcome. Protocols like UniswapX and CowSwap already demonstrate this, outsourcing routing and execution to a network of solvers.
This changes the dApp stack. Developers now build for account abstraction and intent expression, while infrastructure like Stackup's bundler or Pimlico's paymaster handles execution. The dApp becomes a declarative interface, not a transaction factory.
Evidence: The Arbitrum ecosystem, a leader in AA adoption, processes over 1.5 million UserOps monthly, demonstrating real demand for this abstracted layer.
thesis-statement
THE PARADIGM SHIFT
The Core Thesis: From Transactions to Intents
The future of dApp development is building for User Operations, not raw transactions.
Transactions are a low-level primitive that expose users to complexity like gas estimation, slippage, and chain-specific logic. User Operations (UserOps) abstract this into a declarative intent, shifting execution risk to specialized solvers.
Intents are the new API for DeFi. Protocols like UniswapX and CowSwap already route orders through a solver network for optimal execution. Building at this layer captures value from the execution itself.
The ERC-4337 standard commoditizes wallets, making the user's transaction bundle the atomic unit. This creates a competitive market for bundlers and paymasters, similar to how MEV searchers compete today.
Evidence: Arbitrum's Stylus and zkSync's Boojum prove L2s are optimizing for this future, where the VM executes complex intent logic off-chain, settling only proofs.
key-trends
FROM SMART CONTRACTS TO USER OPERATIONS
Key Trends Driving the Shift
The next wave of dApp development is moving the complexity from the application layer to the infrastructure, enabling radically simpler and more powerful user experiences.
01
The Problem: Smart Contract Wallets Are Still Too Hard
ERC-4337's promise of account abstraction is bottlenecked by developer complexity. Managing bundlers, paymasters, and signature schemes is a full-time job.
- Key Benefit 1: Developers can integrate AA with a single SDK, bypassing infrastructure management.
- Key Benefit 2: Users get gas sponsorship, batch transactions, and social recovery without the app handling the complexity.
~90%
Dev Time Saved
0 Gas
For Users
02
The Solution: Intent-Based Architectures (UniswapX, CowSwap)
Asking users to sign precise transactions is a UX dead end. The future is declarative intents: "Get me the best price for 1 ETH."
- Key Benefit 1: Solvers compete to fulfill user intents, optimizing for price, speed, and cost, unlocking MEV capture for the user.
- Key Benefit 2: Enables cross-chain swaps natively, as the solver handles bridging (via Across, LayerZero) invisibly.
$10B+
Volume
~20%
Better Price
03
The Problem: dApps Are Silos, Blockchains Are Islands
Building a multi-chain dApp means managing RPCs, gas tokens, and liquidity across 10+ chains. It's a scaling and security nightmare.
- Key Benefit 1: A unified UserOp layer lets apps interact with any chain through a single interface, abstracting chain-specific logic.
- Key Benefit 2: Users hold assets on their preferred L2 (Arbitrum, Base) but can interact with protocols on any other chain seamlessly.
10+
Chains Abstracted
1 Click
Cross-Chain Action
04
The Solution: Programmable Session Keys (Privy, Dynamic)
Every transaction requiring a wallet pop-up destroys flow. Session keys allow temporary, scoped permissions for seamless app interaction.
- Key Benefit 1: Enable subscription models, free-to-play games, and high-frequency trading directly from a smart account.
- Key Benefit 2: Limits risk; keys are time-bound and can only perform pre-approved actions, drastically reducing attack surface.
0 Pop-ups
Per Session
1000x
UX Improvement
05
The Problem: Onboarding is a Conversion Killer
Seed phrases, gas fees, and network switches stop 99% of potential users at the door. The funnel is broken.
- Key Benefit 1: Embedded wallets (Privy, Dynamic) create non-custodial accounts with email/social login, abstracting the wallet entirely.
- Key Benefit 2: Gasless transactions via paymaster sponsorship allow users to interact before ever owning crypto, turning prospects into users instantly.
<60s
To First Tx
10x
Higher Conversion
06
The Solution: Verifiable Off-Chain Compute (EigenLayer, Espresso)
Complex logic (AI inference, game physics) is impossible on-chain. But users need cryptographic guarantees off-chain results are correct.
- Key Benefit 1: dApps can deploy verifiable ML models or high-speed game engines that settle trustlessly on Ethereum.
- Key Benefit 2: Creates a new design space for on-chain AI agents, decentralized coprocessors, and provably fair gaming.
~100ms
Compute Latency
Ethereum
Finality
THE INFRASTRUCTURE SHIFT
EOA vs. Smart Account: The UX Chasm
A quantitative comparison of the foundational user primitives, highlighting why dApp development is shifting from EOAs to Smart Accounts (ERC-4337) and User Operations.
| Core UX/Dev Feature | Externally Owned Account (EOA) | Smart Account (ERC-4337) | Implication for dApp Dev |
|---|---|---|---|
Transaction Sponsorship (Gas Abstraction) | Enables native paymasters, session keys, and enterprise billing models. | ||
Atomic Batch Execution | Single signature for swaps, approvals, and transfers; eliminates UX dead-ends. | ||
Social Recovery / Key Rotation | Removes seed phrase risk; enables non-custodial account recovery via Safe, Argent. | ||
Avg. Onboarding Time for a New User |
| < 30 sec | Session keys & sponsored gas enable click-to-transact flows. |
Native Support for Intents | Foundation for UniswapX, CowSwap, Across; users specify what, not how. | ||
Required dApp Logic for Safe TX | Custom multi-sig integrations | Standardized via EntryPoint contract | Build once for all Smart Account implementations (Safe, Biconomy, ZeroDev). |
Cost of a Simple Transfer | $0.10 - $2.00 | $0.12 - $2.20 (+~0.0001 ETH deploy) | Initial deploy cost amortized over all future transactions. |
Programmable Security (e.g., spend limits, timelocks) | Enables embedded fraud monitoring, parental controls, and treasury policies. |
deep-dive
THE PARADIGM SHIFT
Architecting for UserOps: A Developer's Guide
The future of dApp development is building for User Operations, not just transactions.
UserOps is the new API. A dApp's frontend now submits a UserOperation object to a Bundler, not a signed transaction to a mempool. This abstraction separates intent from execution, enabling gas sponsorship, batched actions, and social recovery.
The stack is modular and competitive. Developers choose a Bundler (like Stackup or Pimlico), a Paymaster for gas abstraction, and an Account Factory. This competition drives innovation in areas like MEV protection and cost optimization.
Smart Accounts are non-negotiable. ERC-4337-compatible accounts (from Safe to ZeroDev) are programmable primitives. They enable features impossible with EOAs, such as session keys for gaming or multi-chain atomic bundles via LayerZero.
Evidence: The ERC-4337 entry point has processed over 5 million UserOperations, with infrastructure providers like Alchemy and Biconomy reporting a 300% increase in integrated projects year-over-year.
protocol-spotlight
THE USER OPERATIONS LAYER
Protocol Spotlight: Who's Building the Stack
The next wave of dApp development shifts focus from smart contracts to user-centric transaction flows, powered by a new infrastructure layer.
01
ERC-4337: The Account Abstraction Standard
The Problem: Users are forced to manage seed phrases and pay gas in native tokens.\nThe Solution: Smart contract wallets that enable gas sponsorship, batch transactions, and social recovery.\n- Key Benefit: ~80% reduction in onboarding friction for non-crypto users.\n- Key Benefit: Enables session keys for seamless gaming and trading experiences.
5M+
Accounts
-80%
Friction
02
Pimlico & Stackup: The Paymaster & Bundler Duopoly
The Problem: Developers need reliable infrastructure to sponsor gas and bundle UserOperations for ERC-4337.\nThe Solution: Specialized node networks that handle transaction bundling, gas estimation, and fee payment in any token.\n- Key Benefit: Sub-second UserOperation inclusion guarantees.\n- Key Benefit: Pay-as-you-go gas abstraction, removing ETH from the user equation.
~500ms
Latency
$0
User Gas
03
Candide & ZeroDev: Smart Account SDKs
The Problem: Building a secure, feature-rich smart account wallet from scratch is a multi-year engineering effort.\nThe Solution: Modular SDKs and smart account kernels that provide plug-and-play modules for recovery, upgrades, and permissions.\n- Key Benefit: Launch a production-ready smart wallet in under a week.\n- Key Benefit: Modular security with audited, upgradeable components.
1 Week
Launch Time
100%
Modular
04
The Intent-Centric Future: UniswapX & Across
The Problem: Users execute complex, multi-step DeFi transactions manually, exposing them to MEV and failed trades.\nThe Solution: Intent-based protocols where users declare a desired outcome (e.g., 'best price for 100 ETH') and a network of solvers competes to fulfill it.\n- Key Benefit: Better execution prices via solver competition and cross-chain liquidity.\n- Key Benefit: MEV protection as solvers internalize the search for optimal routing.
$10B+
Volume
+20bps
Price Improvement
05
Privy & Dynamic: Embedded Wallets
The Problem: Every dApp forces users through a disjointed wallet connection flow, breaking UX.\nThe Solution: Non-custodial, embedded wallets created via social logins (Google, Discord) that live inside the dApp.\n- Key Benefit: One-click onboarding with familiar Web2 patterns.\n- Key Benefit: Seamless key management where the dApp handles complexity invisibly.
2s
Onboarding
0%
Drop-off
06
The Endgame: Chain Abstraction with LayerZero & Polymer
The Problem: Users must manually bridge assets and switch networks, fragmenting liquidity and attention.\nThe Solution: Universal interoperability layers that enable applications to orchestrate actions across any chain, presenting a single-chain experience.\n- Key Benefit: True chain-agnostic dApps where the user never sees a chain selector.\n- Key Benefit: Atomic cross-chain composability unlocking new DeFi and gaming primitives.
50+
Chains
1-Click
UX
counter-argument
THE TRADEOFF
The Counter-Argument: Complexity and Centralization
The shift to UserOps abstracts complexity for users but centralizes risk and technical debt for developers.
Abstracting complexity centralizes risk. Bundlers and Paymasters become single points of failure for the entire UserOps stack, creating systemic vulnerabilities akin to early RPC providers.
Developer complexity explodes. Teams must now manage bundler economics, Paymaster solvency, and gas sponsorship logic, a multi-dimensional problem that EIP-4337 merely defines, not solves.
Interoperability is a mirage. A UserOp built for Stackup's bundler fails on Alchemy's, and Pimlico's Paymaster doesn't integrate with Biconomy's. This fragments liquidity and user experience.
Evidence: The Base ecosystem relies heavily on Coinbase's managed bundler service, demonstrating how infrastructure centralization follows abstraction, creating new platform risks.
risk-analysis
USER OPERATION VULNERABILITIES
Risk Analysis: What Could Go Wrong?
The shift to intent-centric, User Operation-based dApps introduces novel attack vectors and systemic risks that must be mitigated.
01
Solver Cartels and MEV Centralization
The competitive landscape for solving User Ops risks consolidation, creating new MEV cartels. This centralizes power and can lead to censorship or front-running of user intents.
- Risk: A few dominant solvers (e.g., from CowSwap, UniswapX) control >60% of flow.
- Impact: Loss of optimal execution, increased fees, and protocol-level censorship risk.
>60%
Flow Control
+30%
Cost Premium
02
Aggregator Smart Contract Risk
The entry point and aggregator contracts become single points of failure. A bug here compromises all connected dApps and user funds.
- Risk: Complex, permissionless validation logic in contracts like EIP-4337 EntryPoint.
- Impact: Mass fund loss across the ecosystem, similar to bridge hacks (LayerZero, Across).
$1B+
TVL at Risk
1 Contract
Single Point
03
Intent Mismatch and Oracle Manipulation
Solvers fulfill the literal intent, not the user's implied goal. Oracles defining settlement conditions are critical and vulnerable.
- Risk: Solvers exploit slippage tolerances or manipulate price feeds (Chainlink, Pyth).
- Impact: Users get technically valid but economically unfavorable outcomes, eroding trust.
~5% Slippage
Exploitable Gap
Critical
Oracle Dependency
04
Privacy Leakage in the Mempool
Raw User Ops in the public mempool expose full transaction graphs and user strategy, enabling targeted MEV and phishing.
- Risk: Pre-confirmation intent data is visible, unlike private Flashbots bundles.
- Impact: Sophisticated bots can front-run complex intents, degrading UX and security.
100%
Intent Exposure
~500ms
Attack Window
05
Regulatory Ambiguity on Solver Liability
The legal status of permissionless solvers is unclear. They may be classified as regulated entities (brokers, exchanges), creating existential risk.
- Risk: Regulators (SEC, CFTC) target dominant solver networks for operating unlicensed.
- Impact: Protocol fragmentation, geo-blocking, and stifled innovation.
High
Uncertainty
Global
Jurisdictional Risk
06
Systemic Fragility from Cross-Chain Intents
Intents that span multiple chains via bridges (LayerZero, Axelar) compound risk. A failure in one link breaks the entire intent, with unclear recourse.
- Risk: Bridge delay or failure causes partial execution, stranding funds.
- Impact: Unrecoverable funds and insoluble liability between bridge protocols and solvers.
N Chains
Failure Points
Low
Recovery Clarity
future-outlook
THE USER OPERATION
Future Outlook: The Intent-Centric Stack
The future of dApp development shifts from managing transactions to fulfilling user intents through a new, specialized infrastructure layer.
The dApp stack flips. Developers stop building monolithic transaction executors and start building intent fulfillment engines. The core logic moves from 'how to execute' to 'how to best satisfy' a user's declared outcome, outsourcing execution complexity to a new infrastructure layer.
Specialization drives efficiency. This creates a market for solvers—specialized agents competing on cost and speed to fulfill intents. Protocols like UniswapX and CowSwap already demonstrate this model, where solvers, not users, bear gas and MEV risk.
The new abstraction is the UserOp. The ERC-4337 Account Abstraction standard is the foundational primitive, turning an intent into a verifiable, payable User Operation. This standardizes the interface between declarative dApps and the solver network.
Evidence: The Anoma and SUAVE architectures treat intents as first-class objects. Their growth proves that specialized execution layers outperform general-purpose L1s for complex, cross-domain user demands.
takeaways
BUILDING FOR USER OPS
Key Takeaways for Builders
The future of dApp development shifts from managing gas and wallets to defining user intents. Here's how to build for it.
01
The Problem: Gas Abstraction is Table Stakes
Users hate managing gas tokens. The solution is sponsored transactions and paymasters. This isn't just convenience; it's a conversion funnel.\n- Key Benefit 1: Onboard users with a credit card or any ERC-20 token.\n- Key Benefit 2: Enable gasless transactions for key actions, boosting engagement.
~70%
Drop-off Reduced
ERC-20
Pay Gas With
02
The Solution: Intent-Based Architectures (UniswapX, CowSwap)
Stop building monolithic transaction routers. Let specialized solvers compete to fulfill user intents (e.g., "swap X for Y").\n- Key Benefit 1: Users get better prices and guaranteed execution via MEV protection.\n- Key Benefit 2: Developers offload complexity to networks like UniswapX, CowSwap, and Across.
10-50 bps
Price Improvement
Solver Network
Execution Layer
03
The Infrastructure: Account Abstraction is Your New API
Smart contract wallets (ERC-4337) are the runtime for UserOps. Your dApp's backend should interact with bundlers and paymasters, not EOAs.\n- Key Benefit 1: Enable batch transactions (approve & swap in one click) and session keys.\n- Key Benefit 2: Future-proof for multi-chain intents via infra like LayerZero and CCIP.
1-Click
Complex Actions
ERC-4337
Standard
04
The Metric: Shift from TVL to Successful Intent Fulfillment
Forget Total Value Locked. The new north star is fulfillment rate, solver competition, and cost-to-user. Measure what matters.\n- Key Benefit 1: Align incentives with user outcomes, not just capital parked.\n- Key Benefit 2: Optimize for end-to-end latency (<5s) and fee efficiency, not just low gas.
>99%
Fulfillment Rate
<5s
Target Latency
05
The Risk: Don't Outsource Security to the Solver
Intent systems introduce new trust assumptions. A malicious solver can front-run or censor. Your system must verify fulfillment.\n- Key Benefit 1: Implement solution checking and fallback mechanisms to the public mempool.\n- Key Benefit 2: Use verification layers or threshold cryptography for critical intents.
Audit Solvers
Requirement
Fallback Mempool
Safety Net
06
The Pivot: From dApp to Intent Orchestrator
Your product is no longer a UI to a smart contract. It's an intent orchestration layer that routes users to the best execution venue.\n- Key Benefit 1: Capture value by aggregating liquidity and solvers, not owning it.\n- Key Benefit 2: Build a composable intent graph that other apps can plug into.
Aggregation
Core Value
Composable Graph
Network Effect
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